Bess and Dee Volume 1 Chapter 5

Organizational Environments 

Systems Theory  

Authors: Karl Ludwig von Bertalanffy and Kenneth Berrien

Systems theory originates from early research by Bertalanffy and Berrien. Systems theory in organizational environments asserts that institutions have an interdependent relationship with the external environment (Bess and Dee, 2012). Ongoing transactions occur on a continuous basis between the organization and the environment. Key characteristics of the environment  sustain the organization. Under this theory, a reciprocal relationship exists between the organization and the environment.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Helvitica', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt">References  

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: -0.5in; margin: 0in 0in 10pt 0.5in"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Helvitica', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt">Berrien, F. K.   (1968). ''General   and social systems theory. ''New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: -0.5in; margin: 0in 0in 10pt 0.5in"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Helvitica', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt">Bertalanffy Center for the Study of Systems Science. (2012).   News and events. Retrieved from http://www.bertalanffy.org/

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Helvitica', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt">Bertalanffy, L. von. (1968). General systems theory. New York: Braziller.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: -0.5in; margin: 0in 0in 10pt 0.5in"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Helvitica', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt">Bess, J.L. & Dee, J.R. (2012). Understanding college and university organization:   Theories for effective policy and practice (2 vol). Sterling, VA: Stylus.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: -0.5in; margin: 0in 0in 10pt 0.5in"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Helvitica', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt">Rosenberg, L. (2008). Understanding college and university organization: theories for effective policy and practice—volume II: Dynamics of the system. Strategic Enrollment Management: Newsletter of the American Association of Collegiate Registrars and Admisisons Officers.   Retrieved from http://www2.aacrao.org/sem/index.cfm?fa=view&id=4023

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<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Helvitica', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt">Population Ecology Theory  

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt">Authors: Michael T. Hannan and John Freeman

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Helvitica', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt">According to population ecology theory, organizations that adapt to their environments are more likely to succeed. Population ecology theory states that the environment is ever changing and asserts that organizations are compelled to respond to changes in the environment (Bess and Dee, 2012). Population ecology theory addresses competition and the degree to which an organization can adapt to the environment. Higher education institutions are inclined to operate best in an environmental niche that provides resources for survival. Hannan & Freeman (1977) note that organizations that are able to maintain an optimum fit with the external environment are most likely to survive in changing environments.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Helvitica', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"> Click here for more information on Population ecology.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Helvitica', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt">References  

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: -0.5in; margin: 0in 0in 10pt 0.5in"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Helvitica', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt">Bess, J.L. & Dee, J.R. (2012). Understanding college and university organization:   Theories for effective policy and practice (2 vol). Sterling, VA: Stylus.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: -0.5in; margin: 0in 0in 10pt 0.5in"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Helvitica', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt">Betton, J. & Dess, G.G. (1985). The application of population ecology models to the study of organizations.    Academy of Management Review, 10(4), 750-757.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: -0.5in; margin: 0in 0in 10pt 0.5in"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Helvitica', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt">Hannan, M.T. & Freeman, J. (1977). The population ecology of organizations. American Journal of Sociology, 82(5), 929-964.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: -0.5in; margin: 0in 0in 10pt 0.5in"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Helvitica', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt">Noy, E. (2010). Niche strategy: merging economic and marketing theories with population ecology arguments. Journal of Strategic Marketing, 18(1), 77-86.

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<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Helvitica', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt">Institutional Theory  

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt">Authors:   Paul J. DiMaggio and Walter W. Powell

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Helvitica', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt">Institutional theory addresses the significance of understanding external expectations for institutions (Bess and Dee, 2012). According to DiMaggio and Powell (1983), colleges and universities gain legitimacy through coercive, mimetic, and normative conformity. Choices made by the institution are limited by external pressures from the environment. Institutional theory explains that institutions reflect the attitudes, values, and beliefs of the external environment in which the institution is embedded (Bess and Dee, 2012).

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<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Helvitica', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt">References  

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: -0.5in; margin: 0in 0in 10pt 0.5in"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Helvitica', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt">Bess, J.L. & Dee, J.R. (2012). Understanding college and university organization:   Theories for effective policy and practice (2 vol). Sterling, VA: Stylus.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: -0.5in; margin: 0in 0in 10pt 0.5in"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Helvitica', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt">DiMaggio, P. J. & Powell, W. W. (1983). The iron cage revisited: Institutional isomorphism and collective rationality in organizational fields. American Sociological Review, 48. 147-160.

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<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Helvitica', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt">Random Transformation Model  

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<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt">Authors:   James G. March and Johan P. Olsen

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Helvitica', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt">The random transformation model proposes that no fundamental relationship exists between the organization and the environment (March and Olsen, 1976). The success rate of the organization occurs mainly by chance. No casual relationship between the environment and the organization can explain the continuity of an organization over a period of time (Bess and Dee, 2012). Changes in both the environment and the organization occur by chance.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Helvitica', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt">References  

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: -0.5in; margin: 0in 0in 10pt 0.5in"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Helvitica', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt">Bess, J.L. & Dee, J.R. (2012). Understanding college and university organization:   Theories for effective policy and practice (2 vol). Sterling, VA: Stylus.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: -40.5pt; margin: 0in 0in 10pt 0.5in"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Helvitica', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt">March, J. G., & Olsen, J.P. (1976). Ambiguity and choice in organizations. Bergen, Norway: Universitiesforlaget.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: -40.5pt; margin: 0in 0in 10pt 0.5in"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Helvitica', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt">March, J.G. & Olsen, J.P. (1984). The new institutionalism: organizational factors in political life. The American Political Science Review, 78(3), 734-749.

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<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Helvitica', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt">Contingency Theory  

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt">Authors: Tom Burns and G.M. Stalker

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Helvitica', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt">Contingency theory asserts that organizations can only be successful when organizational variables are strategically aligned with environmental conditions (Bess and Dee, 2012). The organization must be flexible in order to react to external conditions of the environment. Burns and Stalker (1961) offer the following table to explain the fit between the organizational variables and environmental conditions. According to contingency theory, the closer the environment is related to the organizational design the more effective the organization will be overall.

<p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center; margin: 0in 0in 10pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Helvitica', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Helvitica', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt">Burns and Stalker’s Contingency Theory   

<p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center; margin: 0in 0in 10pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Helvitica', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"> <p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center; margin: 0in 0in 10pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Helvitica', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt">*Table adapted from Bess and Dee (2012)

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Helvitica', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt">Click here for more information on Contingency theory.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Helvitica', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt">References  

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: -0.5in; margin: 0in 0in 10pt 0.5in"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Helvitica', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt">Bess, J.L. & Dee, J.R. (2012). Understanding college and university organization:   Theories for effective policy and practice (2 vol). Sterling, VA: Stylus.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: -0.5in; margin: 0in 0in 10pt 0.5in"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Helvitica', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt">Burns, T., & Stalker, G. (1961). The management of innovation. London: Tavistock.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: -0.5in; margin: 0in 0in 10pt 0.5in"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Helvitica', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt">Ketokivi, M. (2006). Elaborating the contingency theory of organizations the case of manufacturing flexibility strategies. Production and Operations Management, 15(2), 215-228.

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<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Helvitica', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt">Resource Dependence Theory  

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt">Authors: Jeffrey Pfeffer and Gerald Salancik

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Helvitica', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt">Resource dependence theory states that institutions are dependent on external entities in order to survive (Bess and Dee, 2012). External constituents not only determine whether or not an organization will receive resources but they also determine the extent to which the organization uses the resources. Resource dependence theory implies that there is a power relationship between the organization and external entities. In addition to adapting to the environment organizations must maintain strong external relationships with constituents to attain resources for stability. Bess and Dee (2012) offer the following table for managing resource dependence: <p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center; margin: 0in 0in 10pt"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt">

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Helvitica', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt">References  

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: -0.5in; margin: 0in 0in 10pt 0.5in"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Helvitica', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt">Bess, J.L. & Dee, J.R. (2012). Understanding college and university organization:   Theories for effective policy and practice (2 vol). Sterling, VA: Stylus.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: -0.5in; margin: 0in 0in 10pt 0.5in"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Helvitica', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt">Casciaro, T. & Piskorski, M. J. (2005). Power imbalance, mutual dependence and constraint absorption: a closer look at resource dependence theory. Administrative Science Quarterly, 50(2), 167-199.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: -0.5in; margin: 0in 0in 10pt 0.5in"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Helvitica', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt">Pfeffer, J. & Salancik, G. (1978). The external control of organizations: a resource dependence perspective. New York: Harper & Row.

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<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt">Social Construction Perspectives 

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt">Authors: Stanley Deetz, Mary Hatch, Dennis Mumby, and Karl Weick

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Helvitica', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt">   Social constructionist perspectives on environment assert that the external environmental conditions are not tangible and are unable to be analyzed objectively (Bess and Dee, 2012). Instead, the environment is made up of cognitive and communicative process performed by organizational members. Organizational members reflect the values, beliefs, and ideologies of the external environment. The manner in which organizational members interpret the environment is called sensemaking (Weick, 1995). Identity and image both play a major role is the social constructionist perspective of organizational environments. Identity refers to the impression institutional members have on the organization, while image defines how external constituents view the institution.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Helvitica', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt">References  

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: -0.5in; margin: 0in 0in 10pt 0.5in"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Helvitica', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt">Bess, J.L. & Dee, J.R. (2012). Understanding college and university organization:   Theories for effective policy and practice (2 vol). Sterling, VA: Stylus.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: -0.5in; margin: 0in 0in 10pt 0.5in"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Helvitica', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt">Deetz, S. (1992). ''Democracy in an age of corporate colonization: Development in communication and the politics of everyday life. ''Albany State University of New York Press.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: -0.5in; margin: 0in 0in 10pt 0.5in"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Helvitica', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt">Hatch, M. (1997). Organization theory: Modern, symbolic, and postmodern perspectives. New York: Oxford University Press.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: -0.5in; margin: 0in 0in 10pt 0.5in"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Helvitica', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt">Hatch, M. & Schultz, M. (1997). Relations between organizational culture, identity and image. European Journal of Marketing, 31(5/6), 356-365.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: -0.5in; margin: 0in 0in 10pt 0.5in"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Helvitica', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt">Mumby, D. (1996). Feminism, postmodernism, and organizational communication studies: a critical reading. Management Communication Quarterly, 9(3), 259-295.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: -0.5in; margin: 0in 0in 10pt 0.5in"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Helvitica', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt">Weick, K. (1995). ''Sensemaking in organizations. ''   Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Helvitica', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt">Postmodern Perspectives  

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt">Authors: Charles Darwin and Max Weber

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Helvitica', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt">Postmodern perspectives on organizational environments suggest that positivist and social constructionist perspectives are problematic. Predictions and the ability to control are not practical environments that are chaotic. Furthermore, power differences within the organization complicate sensemaking and image. Chaos theory suggests that organizations should make sense of chaotic events and make long-term plans around such events as opposed to adjusting to each change in the external environment (Bess and Dee, 2012). Chaos theory implies that change can occur in a nonlinear fashion, thus creating a butterfly effect in which the smallest change in conditions has the potential to magnify outcomes.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Helvitica', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt">Click here for more information on Chaos theory.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Helvitica', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt">References  

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: -0.5in; margin: 0in 0in 10pt 0.5in"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Helvitica', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt">Bess, J.L. & Dee, J.R. (2012). Understanding college and university organization:   Theories for effective policy and practice (2 vol). Sterling, VA: Stylus.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: -0.5in; margin: 0in 0in 10pt 0.5in"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Helvitica', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt">Forgues, B. & Thiétart, R.A. (1995). Chaos theory and organization. Organization Science, 6(1), 19-31.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: -0.5in; margin: 0in 0in 10pt 0.5in"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Helvitica', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt">Lorenz, E. (1993). The essence of chaos. Seattle: University of Washington Press.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: -0.5in; margin: 0in 0in 10pt 0.5in"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Helvitica', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt">Smith, W. (2001). Chaos theory and postmodern organization. International Journal of Organization Theory & Behavior, 4(3/4), 259-286. <p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center; margin: 0in 0in 10pt">