Bess and Dee Volume 1 Chapter 4





Systems Theory 

Authors: Ludwig von Bertalanffy and Kenneth Berrien

Bess, J., Dee, J. (2012). General and social systems theory. Understanding college and university organizations: Theories for effective policy and practice. (p. 88-125). Sterling, VA: Stylus

<span lang="EN" style="font-family: 'Helvetica', 'sans-serif'; color: #3a3a3a; font-size: 10pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ansi-language: EN">Systems theory comprises framework that permits the identification of key inputs, outputs, and transformative processes in organizations, such as colleges and universities, at both the institutional and individual levels. Most conceptualizations of systems theory are positivist in focus and emphasize rational rather than normative language. Systems theory is considered broad and general and allows one to make broad generalizations about the character of an organization or a worker or his or her activities. Broad generalizations allow attention to be drawn to the essential elements in organizations that are stable and to those whose relationships to one another are changing. It is helpful in analyzing and explaining behavior of two complex systems: organizations and individuals (Bess and Dee, 2012, p. 91-93)

<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 15.75pt; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto"><span lang="EN" style="font-family: 'Helvetica', 'sans-serif'; color: #3a3a3a; font-size: 10pt; mso-ansi-language: EN"><span lang="EN" style="font-family: 'Helvetica', 'sans-serif'; color: #3a3a3a; font-size: 10pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ansi-language: EN">Grand Theory <span lang="EN" style="font-family: 'Helvetica', 'sans-serif'; color: #3a3a3a; font-size: 10pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ansi-language: EN">

<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 15.75pt; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto"><span lang="EN" style="font-family: 'Helvetica', 'sans-serif'; color: #3a3a3a; font-size: 10pt; mso-ansi-language: EN"><span lang="EN" style="font-family: 'Helvetica', 'sans-serif'; color: #3a3a3a; font-size: 10pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ansi-language: EN">Authors: Talcott Parsons

<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 15.75pt; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto"><span lang="EN" style="font-family: 'Helvetica', 'sans-serif'; color: #3a3a3a; font-size: 10pt; mso-ansi-language: EN"><span lang="EN" style="font-family: 'Helvetica', 'sans-serif'; color: #3a3a3a; font-size: 10pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ansi-language: EN">Bess, J., Dee, J. (2012). General and social systems theory. Understanding college and university organizations: Theories for effective policy and practice. (p. 92). Sterling, VA: Stylus

<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 15.75pt; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto"><span lang="EN" style="font-family: 'Helvetica', 'sans-serif'; color: #3a3a3a; font-size: 10pt; mso-ansi-language: EN"><span lang="EN" style="font-family: 'Helvetica', 'sans-serif'; color: #3a3a3a; font-size: 10pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ansi-language: EN">Grand theory focuses was social systems as a whole and the nature and relationships of their component parts.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 15.75pt; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto"><span lang="EN" style="font-family: 'Helvetica', 'sans-serif'; color: #3a3a3a; font-size: 10pt; mso-ansi-language: EN"><span lang="EN" style="font-family: 'Helvetica', 'sans-serif'; color: #3a3a3a; font-size: 10pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ansi-language: EN">General Systems Theory <span lang="EN" style="font-family: 'Helvetica', 'sans-serif'; color: #3a3a3a; font-size: 10pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ansi-language: EN">

<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 15.75pt; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto"><span lang="EN" style="font-family: 'Helvetica', 'sans-serif'; color: #3a3a3a; font-size: 10pt; mso-ansi-language: EN"><span lang="EN" style="font-family: 'Helvetica', 'sans-serif'; color: #3a3a3a; font-size: 10pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ansi-language: EN">Authors: Ludwig von Bertalanffy

<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 15.75pt; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto"><span lang="EN" style="font-family: 'Helvetica', 'sans-serif'; color: #3a3a3a; font-size: 10pt; mso-ansi-language: EN"><span lang="EN" style="font-family: 'Helvetica', 'sans-serif'; color: #3a3a3a; font-size: 10pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ansi-language: EN">Bess, J., Dee, J. (2012). General and social systems theory. Understanding college and university organizations: Theories for effective policy and practice. (p. 93-112). Sterling, VA: Stylus

<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 15.75pt; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto"><span lang="EN" style="font-family: 'Helvetica', 'sans-serif'; color: #3a3a3a; font-size: 10pt; mso-ansi-language: EN"><span lang="EN" style="font-family: 'Helvetica', 'sans-serif'; color: #3a3a3a; font-size: 10pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ansi-language: EN">General systems theory was conceptualized at a very high level of abstraction so that it could apply to systems from single cells within organisms to complex human societies.


 * <span lang="EN" style="font-family: 'Helvetica', 'sans-serif'; color: #3a3a3a; font-size: 10pt; mso-ansi-language: EN"><span lang="EN" style="font-family: 'Helvetica', 'sans-serif'; font-size: 10pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ansi-language: EN">System- set of components or elements that are interrelated, interactive, and interdependent (i.e. college or university)


 * <span lang="EN" style="font-family: 'Helvetica', 'sans-serif'; color: #3a3a3a; font-size: 10pt; mso-ansi-language: EN"><span lang="EN" style="font-family: 'Helvetica', 'sans-serif'; font-size: 10pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ansi-language: EN">Boundary- part of a system that separates it from other systems, allows the system to define its identity, provides protection for the system through its filtering or selection mechanism, and acts as a point of contact and exchange with other systems in the environment (i.e. physical location of campus)


 * <span lang="EN" style="font-family: 'Helvetica', 'sans-serif'; color: #3a3a3a; font-size: 10pt; mso-ansi-language: EN"><span lang="EN" style="font-family: 'Helvetica', 'sans-serif'; font-size: 10pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ansi-language: EN">Open system- system that can carry out exchanges with the environment more easily (i.e. community college)


 * <span lang="EN" style="font-family: 'Helvetica', 'sans-serif'; color: #3a3a3a; font-size: 10pt; mso-ansi-language: EN"><span lang="EN" style="font-family: 'Helvetica', 'sans-serif'; font-size: 10pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ansi-language: EN">Closed system- system that restricts exchanges (i.e. private school)


 * <span lang="EN" style="font-family: 'Helvetica', 'sans-serif'; color: #3a3a3a; font-size: 10pt; mso-ansi-language: EN"><span lang="EN" style="font-family: 'Helvetica', 'sans-serif'; font-size: 10pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ansi-language: EN">Boundary Permeability- related to system's vitality and energy consumption; overbounded-too much energy expended; underbounded- too much energy wasted (i.e. duplication of work)


 * <span lang="EN" style="font-family: 'Helvetica', 'sans-serif'; color: #3a3a3a; font-size: 10pt; mso-ansi-language: EN"><span lang="EN" style="font-family: 'Helvetica', 'sans-serif'; font-size: 10pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ansi-language: EN">Interface- space through which exchanges between systems pass (i.e. the space between two pertinent offices)


 * <span lang="EN" style="font-family: 'Helvetica', 'sans-serif'; color: #3a3a3a; font-size: 10pt; mso-ansi-language: EN"><span lang="EN" style="font-family: 'Helvetica', 'sans-serif'; font-size: 10pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ansi-language: EN">Environment- everything beyond the boundary of the system (i.e. state agencies)


 * <span lang="EN" style="font-family: 'Helvetica', 'sans-serif'; color: #3a3a3a; font-size: 10pt; mso-ansi-language: EN"><span lang="EN" style="font-family: 'Helvetica', 'sans-serif'; font-size: 10pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ansi-language: EN">Inputs- energy elements from the environment that are absorbed through the boundary (i.e. human resources, technology)


 * <span lang="EN" style="font-family: 'Helvetica', 'sans-serif'; color: #3a3a3a; font-size: 10pt; mso-ansi-language: EN"><span lang="EN" style="font-family: 'Helvetica', 'sans-serif'; font-size: 10pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ansi-language: EN">Storage and Memory- when resources/inputs are not immediately used, the system must have in place a way to store the inputs (i.e. admissions applications)


 * <span lang="EN" style="font-family: 'Helvetica', 'sans-serif'; color: #3a3a3a; font-size: 10pt; mso-ansi-language: EN"><span lang="EN" style="font-family: 'Helvetica', 'sans-serif'; font-size: 10pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ansi-language: EN">Components or Subsystems- basic units of the system (i.e. department of Financial Aid)


 * <span lang="EN" style="font-family: 'Helvetica', 'sans-serif'; color: #3a3a3a; font-size: 10pt; mso-ansi-language: EN"><span lang="EN" style="font-family: 'Helvetica', 'sans-serif'; font-size: 10pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ansi-language: EN">Structure- pattern of relationships among components that exists at any given time (i.e. interdepartmental relationships)


 * <span lang="EN" style="font-family: 'Helvetica', 'sans-serif'; color: #3a3a3a; font-size: 10pt; mso-ansi-language: EN"><span lang="EN" style="font-family: 'Helvetica', 'sans-serif'; font-size: 10pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ansi-language: EN">Differentiation and Specialization- separating people or organizational units into specialized roles where expertise can be exercised, but then finding ways to connect them organizationally and attitudinally (i.e. cross training of offices)


 * <span lang="EN" style="font-family: 'Helvetica', 'sans-serif'; color: #3a3a3a; font-size: 10pt; mso-ansi-language: EN"><span lang="EN" style="font-family: 'Helvetica', 'sans-serif'; font-size: 10pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ansi-language: EN">Transformations- inputs stored for later use can be transformed (i.e. student taking developmental credit hours are transformed into students taking regular college courses)


 * <span lang="EN" style="font-family: 'Helvetica', 'sans-serif'; color: #3a3a3a; font-size: 10pt; mso-ansi-language: EN"><span lang="EN" style="font-family: 'Helvetica', 'sans-serif'; font-size: 10pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ansi-language: EN">Black Box- interactions in the system that do not fit in general or social systems (i.e. email)


 * <span lang="EN" style="font-family: 'Helvetica', 'sans-serif'; color: #3a3a3a; font-size: 10pt; mso-ansi-language: EN"><span lang="EN" style="font-family: 'Helvetica', 'sans-serif'; font-size: 10pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ansi-language: EN">State of the System- degree of openness of the system, the adaptability and variability of the system, and the stability and equilibrium of the system (i.e. admissions policy that limits student enrollment)


 * <span lang="EN" style="font-family: 'Helvetica', 'sans-serif'; color: #3a3a3a; font-size: 10pt; mso-ansi-language: EN"><span lang="EN" style="font-family: 'Helvetica', 'sans-serif'; font-size: 10pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ansi-language: EN">Equilibrium and homeostasis- stability of system; continuous adjustment of system (i.e. adding new academic programs)


 * <span lang="EN" style="font-family: 'Helvetica', 'sans-serif'; color: #3a3a3a; font-size: 10pt; mso-ansi-language: EN"><span lang="EN" style="font-family: 'Helvetica', 'sans-serif'; font-size: 10pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ansi-language: EN">Equifianality- systems can reach the same end from different initial positions and through different paths (i.e. different policies across state institutions)


 * <span lang="EN" style="font-family: 'Helvetica', 'sans-serif'; color: #3a3a3a; font-size: 10pt; mso-ansi-language: EN"><span lang="EN" style="font-family: 'Helvetica', 'sans-serif'; font-size: 10pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ansi-language: EN">Outputs- exported products of the system (i.e. students who graduate)


 * <span lang="EN" style="font-family: 'Helvetica', 'sans-serif'; color: #3a3a3a; font-size: 10pt; mso-ansi-language: EN"><span lang="EN" style="font-family: 'Helvetica', 'sans-serif'; font-size: 10pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ansi-language: EN">Feedback- means for organizations to determine how outputs compare with goals and how well options are received in the environment (i.e. retention rates)


 * <span lang="EN" style="font-family: 'Helvetica', 'sans-serif'; color: #3a3a3a; font-size: 10pt; mso-ansi-language: EN"><span lang="EN" style="font-family: 'Helvetica', 'sans-serif'; font-size: 10pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ansi-language: EN">Entropy- tendencies of systems to drift toward disorder (i.e. duplication of duties)

<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 15.75pt; margin: 0in 0in 0pt"><span lang="EN" style="font-family: 'Helvetica', 'sans-serif'; color: #3a3a3a; font-size: 10pt; mso-ansi-language: EN"><span lang="EN" style="font-family: 'Helvetica', 'sans-serif'; color: #3a3a3a; font-size: 10pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ansi-language: EN">   Social Systems Theory

<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 15.75pt; margin: 0in 0in 0pt"><span lang="EN" style="font-family: 'Helvetica', 'sans-serif'; color: #3a3a3a; font-size: 10pt; mso-ansi-language: EN">

<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 15.75pt; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto"><span lang="EN" style="font-family: 'Helvetica', 'sans-serif'; color: #3a3a3a; font-size: 10pt; mso-ansi-language: EN"><span lang="EN" style="font-family: 'Helvetica', 'sans-serif'; color: #3a3a3a; font-size: 10pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ansi-language: EN">Authors: Ludwig von Bertalanffy <span lang="EN" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; color: #3a3a3a; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ansi-language: EN">

<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 15.75pt; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto"><span lang="EN" style="font-family: 'Helvetica', 'sans-serif'; color: #3a3a3a; font-size: 10pt; mso-ansi-language: EN"><span lang="EN" style="font-family: 'Helvetica', 'sans-serif'; color: #3a3a3a; font-size: 10pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ansi-language: EN">Bess, J., Dee, J. (2012). General and social systems theory. Understanding college and university organizations: Theories for effective policy and practice. (p. 109-112). Sterling, VA: Stylus <span lang="EN" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; color: #3a3a3a; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ansi-language: EN">

<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 15.75pt; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto"><span lang="EN" style="font-family: 'Helvetica', 'sans-serif'; color: #3a3a3a; font-size: 10pt; mso-ansi-language: EN"><span lang="EN" style="font-family: 'Helvetica', 'sans-serif'; color: #3a3a3a; font-size: 10pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ansi-language: EN">Social systems theory focuses on the individual and how he fits within the general systems theory. The main system in social systems theory is the individual. There are two tracks to help explain individual behavior: <span lang="EN" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; color: #3a3a3a; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ansi-language: EN">


 * <span lang="EN" style="font-family: 'Helvetica', 'sans-serif'; color: #3a3a3a; font-size: 10pt; mso-ansi-language: EN"><span lang="EN" style="font-family: 'Helvetica', 'sans-serif'; font-size: 10pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ansi-language: EN">Nomothetic-comprises the forces external to the individual such as organization, roles, and expectations


 * <span lang="EN" style="font-family: 'Helvetica', 'sans-serif'; color: #3a3a3a; font-size: 10pt; mso-ansi-language: EN"><span lang="EN" style="font-family: 'Helvetica', 'sans-serif'; font-size: 10pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ansi-language: EN">Idiographic-comprises the forces internal to the individual such as personal beliefs, personality, and need disposition

<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 15.75pt; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto"><span lang="EN" style="font-family: 'Helvetica', 'sans-serif'; color: #3a3a3a; font-size: 10pt; mso-ansi-language: EN"><span lang="EN" style="font-family: 'Helvetica', 'sans-serif'; color: #3a3a3a; font-size: 10pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ansi-language: EN">Organized Anarchy <span lang="EN" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; color: #3a3a3a; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ansi-language: EN">

<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 15.75pt; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto"><span lang="EN" style="font-family: 'Helvetica', 'sans-serif'; color: #3a3a3a; font-size: 10pt; mso-ansi-language: EN"><span lang="EN" style="font-family: 'Helvetica', 'sans-serif'; color: #3a3a3a; font-size: 10pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ansi-language: EN">Author: Cohen, M. and March, J. <span lang="EN" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; color: #3a3a3a; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ansi-language: EN">

<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 15.75pt; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto"><span lang="EN" style="font-family: 'Helvetica', 'sans-serif'; color: #3a3a3a; font-size: 10pt; mso-ansi-language: EN"><span lang="EN" style="font-family: 'Helvetica', 'sans-serif'; color: #3a3a3a; font-size: 10pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ansi-language: EN">Bess, J., Dee, J. (2012). General and social systems theory. Understanding college and university organizations: Theories for effective policy and practice. (p. 118-119). Sterling, VA: Stylus <span lang="EN" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; color: #3a3a3a; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ansi-language: EN">

<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 15.75pt; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto"><span lang="EN" style="font-family: 'Helvetica', 'sans-serif'; color: #3a3a3a; font-size: 10pt; mso-ansi-language: EN"><span lang="EN" style="font-family: 'Helvetica', 'sans-serif'; color: #3a3a3a; font-size: 10pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ansi-language: EN">Cohen, M., March, J. (1974). ''Leadership and ambiguity: The American college presidency. ''New York: McGraw-Hill. <span lang="EN" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; color: #3a3a3a; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ansi-language: EN">

<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 15.75pt; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto"><span lang="EN" style="font-family: 'Helvetica', 'sans-serif'; color: #3a3a3a; font-size: 10pt; mso-ansi-language: EN"><span lang="EN" style="font-family: 'Helvetica', 'sans-serif'; color: #3a3a3a; font-size: 10pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ansi-language: EN">Organized anarchy is characterized by problematic goals, unclear technologies and fluid participation. Goals are difficult to state within a college or university because they are hard to define, operationalize, and measure. Technologies may not always be well understood among faculty members. Governance and decision making are dependent on participation. <span lang="EN" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; color: #3a3a3a; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ansi-language: EN">

<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 15.75pt; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto"><span lang="EN" style="font-family: 'Helvetica', 'sans-serif'; color: #3a3a3a; font-size: 10pt; mso-ansi-language: EN"><span lang="EN" style="font-family: 'Helvetica', 'sans-serif'; color: #3a3a3a; font-size: 10pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ansi-language: EN">Chaos Theory <span lang="EN" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; color: #3a3a3a; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ansi-language: EN">

<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 15.75pt; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto"><span lang="EN" style="font-family: 'Helvetica', 'sans-serif'; color: #3a3a3a; font-size: 10pt; mso-ansi-language: EN"><span lang="EN" style="font-family: 'Helvetica', 'sans-serif'; color: #3a3a3a; font-size: 10pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ansi-language: EN">Author: Lorenz, E.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 15.75pt; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto"><span lang="EN" style="font-family: 'Helvetica', 'sans-serif'; color: #3a3a3a; font-size: 10pt; mso-ansi-language: EN"><span lang="EN" style="font-family: 'Helvetica', 'sans-serif'; color: #3a3a3a; font-size: 10pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ansi-language: EN">Bess, J., Dee, J. (2012). General and social systems theory. Understanding college and university organizations: Theories for effective policy and practice. (p. 119). Sterling, VA: Stylus <span lang="EN" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; color: #3a3a3a; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ansi-language: EN">

<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 15.75pt; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto"><span lang="EN" style="font-family: 'Helvetica', 'sans-serif'; color: #3a3a3a; font-size: 10pt; mso-ansi-language: EN"><span lang="EN" style="font-family: 'Helvetica', 'sans-serif'; color: #3a3a3a; font-size: 10pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ansi-language: EN">Lorenz, E. (1993). ''The essence of chaos. ''Seattle: University of Washington Press. <span lang="EN" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; color: #3a3a3a; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ansi-language: EN">

<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 15.75pt; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto"><span lang="EN" style="font-family: 'Helvetica', 'sans-serif'; color: #3a3a3a; font-size: 10pt; mso-ansi-language: EN"><span lang="EN" style="font-family: 'Helvetica', 'sans-serif'; color: #3a3a3a; font-size: 10pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ansi-language: EN">Chaos theory establishes the challenges of being able to make accurate predictions about the external environments in which systems are embedded. Leaders face difficulty when using historical or present-day data to predict the future state of the environment, as the environment is in constant flux. <span lang="EN" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; color: #3a3a3a; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ansi-language: EN">

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