Bess and Dee Volume 1 Chapter 11



 Organizational Culture (pp. 359-380)

 Schein’s Framework 

 Author : Edgar Schein

 According to Edgar Schein  (1992), organizational culture exists at three levels: artifacts, values, and basic assumptions. Artifacts are physical components that represent the overall character and image of the institution: symbols, behavior, language, the physical environment, social environment, and technological output (Bess and Dee, 2012). Values, unlike artifacts, are not tangible. Values represent the feelings expressed within the organization such as loyalty, trustworthiness, and customer service. According to Schein (1983), five basic underlying assumptions exist in organizational culture:


 * The organization’s relation to its environment


 * The nature of reality and truth


 * <span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt">The nature of human nature


 * <span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt">The nature of human activity


 * <span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt">The nature of human relationships

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt"> <span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt">References 

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt 0.5in; line-height: 15.75pt; text-indent: -0.5in;"><span lang="EN" style="color: rgb(58, 58, 58); font-family: "Helvetica","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt; mso-ansi-language: EN;">Bess, J.L. & Dee, J.R. (2012). Understanding college and university organization: Theories for effective policy and practice (2 vol). Sterling, VA: Stylus.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: -0.5in; margin: 0in 0in 10pt 0.5in"><span lang="EN" style="color: rgb(58, 58, 58); line-height: 115%; font-family: "Helvetica","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt; mso-ansi-language: EN;">Schein, E. (1983). The role of the founder in creating organizational culture. Organizational Dynamics, 12, 13-29. <span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: "Helvetica","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: -0.5in; margin: 0in 0in 10pt 0.5in"><span lang="EN" style="color: rgb(58, 58, 58); font-family: "Helvetica","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language: EN;">Schein, E. (1992). Organizational culture and leadership (2nd ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: -0.5in; margin: 0in 0in 10pt 0.5in"><span lang="EN" style="color: rgb(58, 58, 58); font-family: "Helvetica","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language: EN;">Schein, E. (1996). Three cultures of management: the key to organizational learning. Sloan Management Review, 38, 9-20.

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<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: -0.5in; margin: 0in 0in 10pt 0.5in"> <span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt">Positivist Research 

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt"> <span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt">Authors: <span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt">Daneil Denison, Terry Deal and Allan Kennedy, John Kotter and James Heskett <span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt">The positivist perspective on organizational culture asserts that culture is an independent variable that can affect several dependent variables such as institutional effectiveness, employee satisfaction, student retention, employee turnover, and efficiency (Bess and Dee, 2012). The stronger the organizational culture, the more effective the institution (Deal and Kennedy, 1982). Organizational effectiveness depends on the relationship between culture and the environmental conditions (Dension, 1990; Kotter and Heskett, 1992).

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt"> <span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt">References 

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt 0.5in; line-height: 12.6pt; text-indent: -0.5in;"><span lang="EN" style="color: rgb(58, 58, 58); font-family: "Helvetica","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt; mso-ansi-language: EN;">Bess, J.L. & Dee, J.R. (2012). Understanding college and university organization: Theories for effective policy and practice (2 vol). Sterling, VA: Stylus.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: -0.5in; margin: 0in 0in 10pt 0.5in"> <span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Helvitica', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span lang="EN" style="color: rgb(58, 58, 58); font-family: "Helvetica","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt; mso-ansi-language: EN;"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Helvitica', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt">Deal, T. & Kennedy, A. (1982). ''Corporate cultures: the rites and rituals of corporate life. ''Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt 0.5in; line-height: 12.6pt; text-indent: -0.5in;"><span lang="EN" style="color: rgb(58, 58, 58); font-family: "Helvetica","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt; mso-ansi-language: EN;">Denison, D. (1990). Corporate culture and organizational effectiveness. New York: John Wiley.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt"> <span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Helvitica', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span lang="EN" style="color: rgb(58, 58, 58); font-family: "Helvetica","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt; mso-ansi-language: EN;"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt">Kotter, J. & Heskett, J. (1992). Corporate culture and performance. New York: Free Press.

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<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt"> <span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Helvitica', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt">Cultural Typologies <span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt">

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt"> <span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Helvitica', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt">Authors <span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt">: William Bergquist, Robert Birnbaum, J. Smart and R. Hamm

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt"> <span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Helvitica', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt">Higher education <span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">researchers offer several <span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">models for culture in colleges and universities. Collegial culture refers to shared governance and decision making at a particular institution (Berquist, 1992; Birnbaum, 1988; Smart and Hamm, 1993). Bureaucratic culture, also known as managerial or hierarchy culture refers to the structure of roles, rules, uniformity, and hiearchy (Berquist, 1992; Birnbaum, 1988; Smart and Hamm, 1993). Political or negotiating culture is characterized through its reliance on compromise, negotiation, and bargaining among organizational members. Anarchical culture is identified by controlled chaos; the institution is often in conflict (Birnbaum, 1988; Cohen and March, 1974).   Developmental culture reflects organizations that encourage human growth and development, investing in professional development and lifelong learning (Berquist, 1992). Market culture is one where organizations compete with like institutions in order to gain a competitive advantage (Smart and Hamm, 1993).

<p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center; margin: 0in 0in 10pt"> <span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Helvitica', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"> <span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt">Typology of Organizational Culture

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt"> <span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Helvitica', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"> <span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt">Table adapted from Smart and Hamm, 1993.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt"> <span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Helvitica', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt">References <span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt">

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt 0.5in; line-height: 12.6pt; text-indent: -0.5in;"><span lang="EN" style="color: rgb(58, 58, 58); font-family: "Helvetica","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt; mso-ansi-language: EN;">Bergquist, W. (1992). ''The four cultures of the academy: Insights and strategies for improving leadership in collegiate organizations. ''San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: -0.5in; margin: 0in 0in 10pt 0.5in"><span lang="EN" style="color: rgb(58, 58, 58); font-family: "Helvetica","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt; mso-ansi-language: EN;">Bess, J.L. & Dee, J.R. (2012). Understanding college and university organization: Theories for effective policy and practice (2 vol). Sterling, VA: Stylus.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: -0.5in; margin: 0in 0in 10pt 0.5in"> <span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Helvitica', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span lang="EN" style="color: rgb(58, 58, 58); font-family: "Helvetica","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt; mso-ansi-language: EN;"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Helvitica', 'serif'; font-size: 12pt"><span lang="EN" style="color: rgb(58, 58, 58); font-family: "Helvetica","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language: EN;">Birnbaum, R. (1998). How colleges work: the cybernetics of academic organization and leadership. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: -0.5in; margin: 0in 0in 10pt 0.5in"><span lang="EN" style="color: rgb(58, 58, 58); font-family: "Helvetica","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language: EN;">Cohen, M. & March, J. (1974). Leadership and ambiguity: the American college president. New York: McGraw-Hill.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: -0.5in; margin: 0in 0in 10pt 0.5in"><span lang="EN" style="color: rgb(58, 58, 58); font-family: "Helvetica","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language: EN;">Smart, J. & Hamm, R. (1993). Organizational culture and effectiveness in two-year colleges. Research in Higher Education, 34(1), 95-106.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: -0.5in; margin: 0in 0in 10pt 0.5in"><span lang="EN" style="color: rgb(58, 58, 58); font-family: "Helvetica","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language: EN;">Smart,, J., Kuh, G.D., & Tierney, W.G. (1997). The roles of institutional cultures and decision approaches in promoting organizational effectiveness in two-year colleges. Journal of Higher Education, 68, 256-281

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: -0.5in; margin: 0in 0in 10pt 0.5in"><span lang="EN" style="color: rgb(58, 58, 58); font-family: "Helvetica","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language: EN;">Click here for <span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Calibri', 'sans-serif'; font-size: 11pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi">more information  on organizational culture.

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<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: -0.5in; margin: 0in 0in 10pt 0.5in"> Volume 1-Chapter 11 (pp 381-399) 

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="text-indent: -0.25in; margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1"> ·            Tierney’s Framework for Studying Organizational Culture

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.5in">This reflects how organizational members define and perceive the organization’s environment, mission, and leadership. It also considers how organizational information is disseminated, how the organization makes decisions, and how people learn their roles within the organization.

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.5in">Resource:

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.5in; mso-add-space: auto"> Tierney, W. G. (1988). Organizational culture in higher education: Defining the essentials. The 

<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-indent: 0.5in; margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.5in"> Journal of Higher Education , 2-21.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt">

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="text-align: justify; line-height: normal; text-indent: -0.25in; margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.5in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1"> ·             Subcultures in Relation to Dominant Culture 

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; line-height: normal; text-indent: -0.25in; margin: 0in 0in 0pt 1in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level2 lfo1"> o       Enhancing subculture:  A subculture that supports the values of the dominant culture

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; line-height: normal; text-indent: -0.25in; margin: 0in 0in 0pt 1in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level2 lfo1"> o       Counterculture:  A subculture whose values contrast with those of the dominant culture

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; line-height: normal; text-indent: -0.25in; margin: 0in 0in 0pt 1in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level2 lfo1"> o       Orthogonal subculture:  A subculture that has its own culture and supports the dominant one.

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; line-height: normal; text-indent: -0.25in; margin: 0in 0in 0pt 1in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level2 lfo1"> o       Resource 

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; line-height: normal; text-indent: -0.25in; margin: 0in 0in 0pt 1.5in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level3 lfo1"> §     Del Favero, M., & Bray, N. J. (2010). Herding cats and big dogs: Tensions in the faculty-administrator relationship. Higher Education: Handbook of Theory and Research, 477-541.

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<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: -0.25in; margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1"> ·            Critical Theory and Organizational Culture

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.5in">Critical Theorists feel that those in authority positions can shape the culture of the organization, which is how positivist researchers feel. Still the critical theorists fear that the values and privileges of top management may become the sole voice of the organization and ignore any other alternate voices. Therefore, ideology (the values, beliefs, and assumptions of the dominant class of people) is important to the critical theorists.

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.5in">Resource: 

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.5in">Brookfield, S. (2001). Repositioning ideology critique in a critical theory of adult learning. Adult 

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: 0.5in; margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.5in">Education Quarterly, 52(1), 7-22.

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: 0.5in; margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.5in"> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: -0.25in; margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1"> ·            Postmodern Perspectives on Organizational Culture

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.5in">Postmodernists feel that organizational culture is inconsistent and ambiguous. Still some postmodernists feel that with the advances in technology and new attitudes about work that organizational members will be freed from their oppressive culture.

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.5in">Resource:

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.5in; mso-add-space: auto">Kuo, H. M. (2009). Understanding relationships between academic staff and administrators: An

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt 1in; mso-add-space: auto">organisational culture perspective. Journal of Higher Education Policy and Management, 31(1), 43-54.

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.5in">

<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt"> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="text-indent: -0.25in; margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1"> ·            Analyzing Organizational Culture via the Three Perspectives

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.5in">Joanne Martin looked at organizational culture from the view of each perspective:

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: -0.25in; margin: 0in 0in 0pt 1in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level2 lfo1"> o      Positivist: Focused on integration which stresses shared values and suggests that organizational leaders want to establish a shared consensus among the entire organization.

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: -0.25in; margin: 0in 0in 0pt 1in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level2 lfo1"> o      Social Constructionist: Focused on differentiation which stresses cultural differences within an organization. Differentiation analyzes the relationships and qualities of subcultures.

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: -0.25in; margin: 0in 0in 0pt 1in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level2 lfo1"> o      Postmodernist: Focused on fragmentation which stresses ambiguity and the feeling that the organizational culture is never stable.

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 1in; mso-add-space: auto">Resource:

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 1in; mso-add-space: auto">Martin, J. (2003). Meta-theoretical controversies in studying organizational culture. TSOUKAS, H.; KNUDSEN, C. The Oxford handbook of organizational theory: metatheoretical perspectives, 392-419.

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 1in; mso-add-space: auto"> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: -0.25in; margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1"> ·            Four Dimensions of Organizational Context

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.5in">Renato Tagiuri established four perceptual dimensions of organizational context:

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: -0.25in; margin: 0in 0in 0pt 1in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level2 lfo1"> o      Ecology: This is the physical environment in which work occurs. The size, age, and conditions of the facilities in which employees work affect ecology.

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: -0.25in; margin: 0in 0in 0pt 1in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level2 lfo1"> o      Social milieu: This is the human dimension of an organization. Organizational morale, how satisfied employees are with their jobs, is a vital measure of social milieu.

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: -0.25in; margin: 0in 0in 0pt 1in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level2 lfo1"> o      Social structure: This is the element of organizational design. How employees view the decision making process is a vital measure of social structure.

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: -0.25in; margin: 0in 0in 0pt 1in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level2 lfo1"> o      Culture: This is the majority way of thinking within the organization. This is impacted by values, assumptions, and artifacts.

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 1in; mso-add-space: auto">Resource:

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt 1in; mso-add-space: auto">Ghoshal, S., & Bartlett, C. A. (1994). Linking organizational context and managerial action: The dimensions of quality of management. Strategic Management Journal, 15(S2), 91-112.